Cuju: Ancient Chinese Football
A History of Cuju (蹴鞠)
A New
Era of Football in China?
In
2011, President Xi Jinping revealed his three dreams for Chinese Football: to
qualify for the world cup, to host a world cup, and to win a world cup. In
2014, China set forth to create an 800 billion dollar sports industry by 2025.
In 2020, China’s General Administration of Sport unveiled plans to have 18 critical
cities dedicated to Football by 2025. Cities should aim to have two professional
teams each, develop a grassroots culture in football and have one football pitch for
every 10,000 people by 2025. The overall
goal for the General Administration is to make China a strong sporting nation
by 2035 and football is a critical factor in that goal. In
addition, the country will build dozens of new football-specific stadiums in
critical regions and expect to bid to host the 2030 or 2034 world cup.
As
China’s influence on the global stage grows, Football leagues, teams, and
sponsors are recognising the potential to engage with a large group of new
fans. China is already one of the biggest spenders on foreign clubs, with
Chinese investors buying minority stakes in Manchester City, Atletico Madrid,
majority stakes in Aston Villa and West Bromwich Albion, not to mention the
entirety of AC Milan with an expected 250 million euros in additional
merchandise sales from their 100 million Chinese fans.
In
2004, FIFA recognised Cuju (蹴鞠) as
the oldest form of football. Cuju is a type of Chinese kickball game, with
historical records dating to the Han Dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE) in the 2nd
century BCE. With the backdrop of the modern growth in Chinese football, some
wonder whether China has a more intimate connection to the sport as the original creators of Football, or Association Football if we were to use its
official name. It certainly fits a larger narrative of football revival in China, but did China really
invent football? I think the answer is no. But let us first explore the history
and development of Cuju from the Han Dynasty up to the modern day.
Cuju: Mythical
Legends and Han Dynasty Origins
According
to legend, Cuju could be traced back to the mythological Yellow Emperor (黄帝) (2697-2596 BCE) using the heads of his defeated
enemies, the Chiyou (蚩尤)
Barbarians, as kicking objects to humiliate them. Another legend said that it
was not their heads that were used but their stomachs instead. The Emperor would order
the stomachs of his fallen enemies to be stuffed and then used as a kickball.
It was only later that the activity would evolve into a form of exercise.
Whether these stories were true is anyone’s guess, but considering the brutal nature of
primitive societies, I reckon it did happen, although it probably had no direct
involvement in the evolution of the formal game of Cuju later played in the Han
dynasty. I also doubt that human organs make for durable footballs, there could
only be so many heads of your enemies to go around.
Thousands
of years later in the Han dynasty (汉朝) (202
BCE-220 CE), bravery and ritual in military practices gave way to the serious
business of conquest and expansion. Chariot warfare declined and infantry
warfare grew. The demands of military life led to the need for new activities
to maintain the physical fitness of soldiers. This period was when Cuju first appeared in Sima Qian’s Records of the Grand Historian (史记). The first Han emperor Gaozu (汉高祖) (202-195 BCE) and his father were avid fans of Cuju
and were said to have played the game since their youths. After ascending the
throne in a bloody civil war, Emperor Gaozu duly promoted Cuju in the country
by establishing Cuju military exercises, and competition rules and building Cuju
infrastructure. Nobles and wealthy citizens alike were said to have built their
own private pitches. The Emperor had his very own football court, complete with
a perimeter and grandstands, and when a match is underway it would have looked remarkably
similar to modern Football matches today.
The
Later Han period (Eastern Han, 东汉)
(25-220 CE) also saw the rise in Buddhism and the transfer of Buddhist
teachings from China to Japan. The subsequent religious exchange saw the
introduction of Cuju into Japan, which gradually evolved into a similar sport called
Kemari (蹴鞠), a favourite
pastime of Japan’s warrior class, the Samurai.
The Tang dynasty (唐朝) (618-907 CE) was marked by a period of transition from the ancient to the medieval. During the Tang dynasty, the core of the army consisted of an aristocratic elite who loved horses. The influence of cavalry was substantial in the Tang dynasty, growing from 5,000 horses in 618 CE to seven hundred thousand horses by 750 CE. The strong influence of horsemanship was reflected in military exercises through the game of polo called Jiju, possibly imported from Iran. Tang armies used polo as a means of military training, much as the Han armies played Cuju.
Cuju experienced
a dramatic change in this period. It had evolved into an activity played by
people from all walks of life: court officials, scholars, women, and children.
It was now played by one to nine players, whose purpose was to keep the ball in
the air. Two kicks were allowed per player, after which the ball was passed.
Further modifications saw the emergence of two goals, one at each end of the
field, and the use of air-filled balls. Its final form only had one goal in the
middle and played like volleyball.
Song Dynasty
Peak
The
Song dynasty (宋朝) (960-1279 CE) was
a time of growth, wealth, and the spread of education. An increase in leisure time provided
a greater demand for more forms of entertainment.
Cuju in
this time became less of a football match but more of a showcase of individual
skill and technique. Players will perform various motions to keep the ball
bouncing in the air. Cuju clubs were also formed, functioning as a sort of football
league. Clubs will send their teams from around the country to compete in
league tournaments.
Ming Dynasty
Evolution
Ball
games became wildly popular in the early Ming Dynasty (明朝) (1368-1644 CE). The painting series Pleasures of
Emperor Xuande (宣德帝) (1399-1435 CE)
depicts a game of Cuju played in the Emperor’s presence. The traditional
Chinese painting of Beauties by Du Jin (杜堇), a famous Ming Dynasty painter, portrays Chinese
court ladies enjoying a game of Cuju.
Cuju also
made its way into the realm of the upper class, which had a big
impact on its nature. The popularity of Cuju among the upper class caught the
attention of brothel prostitutes, who began to play Cuju in erotic manners in
front of their establishments, exactly how they did it I’ll leave that up to
your imagination. This damaged the image of Cuju, which became to be gradually
seen as a vulgar sport.
Emperor Hongwu (洪武帝) (1368-1398 CE),
the first Emperor of the Ming dynasty, saw that his government officials were obsessed
with Cuju, often abandoning their governing duties to play with their friends.
In response, he enacted a complete prohibition on the sport, with anyone
breaking the law suffering severe consequences. Despite this, Cuju remained
very popular. Thirty years later, Emperor Xuande even castrated a soldier
who was a good player so that he could play in court as a eunuch.
Qing Dynasty
Decline
The
Qing period (清朝) (1636-1912 CE)
was when Cuju experienced a stark decline. Military drill, gymnastics, and
sports were directly counter to the dominant Qing concept of culture,
characterised by intellectual ideals. Men of culture wore long gowns with long
sleeves to signify that they were not involved in physical labour. Sports were
an activity for the lower classes. Qing dynasty pigtails, the dominant
hairstyle for men, were also incompatible with professional sports. For women, the
tradition of bound feet constituted an obstacle to sport participation, it was
not until the late 1920s that Chinese women took part in sports in significant
numbers.
This influence can be seen in the late Republican period of China (1912-1949 CE). When Chinese students first took up western sports at missionary schools, they wore long gowns and were resistant to the introduction of physical education into their curriculum. Ernest Hughes noted (1937, pg 176) “25 years ago, it was an effort for a [Chinese] schoolboy to shed his long gown to take part in a game of football.”
Did China Invent
Football?
Looking
back at the dynamic history of Cuju can we still say that football was invented
in China? No, I personally don’t think so. And I say this because of two
reasons.
Firstly, football is the most basic sport in human society, you either hit a ball, or you kick a ball. It is difficult to say that any single group invented the idea of kicking a ball. The Football of today, or to use its official name, association football, is a set of rules set in 1863 by The Football Association in England, which was further standardised by the IFAB, The International Football Association Board in Zurich, Switzerland. The UK doesn’t claim to have invented football, nor was it ever influenced by Cuju in China, but it did codify the set of rules that the entire world plays with today. To claim that China invented football would be to forget that the development of modern-day Association Football and its rules had no relation to Cuju.
Perhaps
it is more important to look at why this answer is important. There are three
main reasons to why it is advantageous for China to claim credit for the
origins of football. External prestige, domestic benefits, and additional revenue.
External
prestige is simple to understand, although in my opinion, not a very strong
factor, being the founder of football gives China brownie points in legacy and legitimacy
in the sport. In terms of domestic benefits, as per typical Neo-Confucian tradition of ancestor worship and filial piety,
it is beneficial for Chinese people to feel a sense of connection to football
if they know that their ancestors had played it in the past. Football is also a
great way to improve the overall health of Chinese citizens, get kids to play
outdoors instead of computer games, and foster societal unity through sports. Lastly,
as the growth in football interest continues to rise in China, there is a lot
of money to be made in Chinese football through broadcasting rights, ticket sales,
and merchandise sales. This would translate into additional tax revenues for the nation.
Problems
with Chinese Football
While
making this video, another question has crept into my mind, and surely yours as
well. How would we know that China’s investment in football pay off? In February
of 2022, China suffered a 3-1 defeat against Vietnam, dashing any Chinese fan’s
hopes of seeing their nation play in the World Cup, leaving them fuming on
social media at the final whistle. Chinese Football today is still at a tragic
state, with an over-reliance on foreign talent and an inability to cultivate
homegrown talent.
Why
is this so? Surely a population of 1.4 billion has at least 11 individuals
skilled enough in football to play on the world stage? To try and understand
why this is not so we would have to go back to school and look at the problems
with modern physical education in China. Firstly, the Euro-American ideal of
violent sport as an integral part of moral training and formation of character
was quite alien to the traditional Chinese ethic. Parents do not encourage their
children’s participation in sports and are even more against these sports' competitive natures. Education authorities, instead of promoting competitive sports, advocate for gymnastics and Chinese
martial arts to inculcate diligence, obedience, endurance, morale, and national
consciousness.
Closing
If
you enjoyed this post, consider reading my previous post on Legendary Ancient
Chinese Swords in the Spring and Autumn Period.
This
post was primarily sourced from Sport and Physical Education in China
by James Riordan and Robin Jones. Supporting sources came from Chinese websites,
which might potentially suffer from a lack of supporting evidence by their contributors. Let me know in the comments if you have questions. Thank you for reading.
References
(a) Book
Hughes, Ernest Richard. The Invasion of China by the Western
World. A. and C. Black, 1937.
Riordan, James, and Jones, Robin. Sport and Physical Education
in China. Taylor & Francis, 1999.
(b) Websites
Nielsen. “Investing in Football Is at the Heart of China’s Sports
Master Plan,” October 2, 2016. https://www.nielsen.com/insights/2016/investing-in-football-is-at-the-heart-of-chinas-sports-master-plan/.
Kidd, Robert. “Why China Is Curbing Club Spending And Building New
Stadiums To Fulfill Its Soccer Dream.” Forbes, December 13, 2020. https://www.forbes.com/sites/robertkidd/2020/12/13/why-china-is-curbing-club-spending-and-building-new-stadiums-to-fulfill-its-soccer-dream/?sh=68447c9173fb.
King, Tom. “China Eyes 18 Soccer Cities in Five Years as It Ramps
up Sports Aspirations - SportsPro.” SportsPro Media, June 2, 2021. https://www.sportspromedia.com/news/china-football-cities-development-general-administration-of-sport/.
看鉴已认证帐号. “蹴鞠真的是现代足球的祖先吗？.” 知乎专栏, 2019. https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/73136078.
(c)
Images
CGTN. “Japanese Players Perform Ancient Ball Game Kemari in
Kyoto,” January 8, 2019. https://news.cgtn.com/news/3d3d414f7a45444f31457a6333566d54/index.html.
Sina “中国古代的蹴鞠：世界足球之源,” August
29, 2012. http://collection.sina.com.cn/qtcp/20120829/141382137.shtml.
AFPBB News. “漢代では兵士の訓練だった 蹴鞠発祥の地でイベント 山東,” May 25,
2018. https://www.afpbb.com/articles/-/3175866?pid=20157471.
Tencent. “《蹴鞠-中国古代的足球》-中国古代的足球竟然如此厉害-今日头条,” March 19, 2022. https://view.inews.qq.com/k/20220319A04GY000?web_channel=wap&openApp=false.
written by Jeremy Ho, 24 September 2022
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